In the West Kootenay region of south-central British Columbia (BC), the Canadian government established eight government-supported internment camps. Among these, New Denver and Rosebery were located along the eastern side of Slocan Lake, Sandon lay in the mountainous region, and Kaslo was located on the western shore of Kootenay Lake.
These towns had briefly thrived during the mining boom of the early 20th century. Still, they became ghost towns following the decline of the mining industry.
When the Canadian government initiated the internment of Japanese Canadians, the existing infrastructure in this region was repurposed to establish internment sites.
New Denver
In 1942, Japanese Canadians arrived in New Denver, and at its peak, approximately 1,505 people were interned. It was the third-largest internment site in the province in 1942. Later, New Denver became a center for healthcare and welfare, including establishing a tuberculosis sanatorium.
After World War II ended, many internment sites were closed, but the Japanese Canadian community in New Denver remained. Today, this site is home to the Nikkei Internment Memorial Centre (NIMC), which preserves and shares the history of Japanese Canadian internment.
Rosebery
Located about 4 kilometres north of New Denver, Rosebery housed approximately 365 people. Known as a satellite camp of New Denver, the living conditions there were also harsh. Today, the site of the former internment camp is preserved as a historical heritage site.
Sandon
Once a bustling mining hub, Sandon was repurposed as an internment site in 1942, housing approximately 953 people, many of whom were Buddhists. However, the site proved incredibly challenging due to its remote, mountainous location, limited sunlight and harsh winter conditions. The Japanese Canadians were eventually relocated to New Denver, making Sandon the first internment camp to close.
Kaslo
Kaslo, which had previously declined, became a town with about 1,200 internees. The Japanese Canadians worked to improve their living conditions by renovating aging buildings and constructing Japanese-style baths.
In the West Kootenay region of south-central British Columbia (BC), the Canadian government established eight government-supported internment camps. Four were Slocan City, Lemon Creek, Popoff, and Bay Farm, located south of Slocan Lake.
Slocan City
Approximately 595 individuals were interned in Slocan City. Their accommodations included old hotels, buildings, and miners’ lodges, where they lived under limited and challenging conditions.
This site also served as the departure point for many Japanese Canadians who were “repatriated” to Japan in 1946. Today, the Japanese Cemetery Monument in Slocan City stands as a legacy that preserves memories of that era.
Lemon Creek
Lemon Creek, located about 8 kilometres south of Slocan City, was the largest internment site in the Slocan Valley. Over 1,851 Japanese Canadians were detained there.
The internees were made to engage in labour, such as cutting railway ties. The camp operated between 1942 and 1943 and was closed in 1946.
Popoff
The Popoff camp was established on a farm leased from Emily and Constantine Popoff. It was situated midway between Slocan City and Lemon Creek.
As the last camp to be built, it was completed in 1943 and housed approximately 1,000 people. The site was closed in 1946.
Bay Farm
Bay Farm, located south of Slocan City, accommodated 1,376 Japanese Canadians by the end of 1942.
Initially, internees lived in makeshift tents, later replaced by shacks. The extreme cold of winter posed severe hardships, and internees faced daily struggles to cope with the freezing temperatures.
Tashme was an internment camp established by the Canadian government in 1942 to detain Japanese Canadians. It was the largest of the government-supported internment camps in Canada.
The camp was located just outside the 100-mile (160-kilometre) “restricted zone” designated by the government. Spanning approximately 1,200 acres, the camp housed up to 2,644 people at its peak.
The land used for the camp was originally a dairy and livestock farm known as “Fourteen Mile Ranch.” The government leased the property from its owner and converted it into an internment camp starting in July 1942.
The first detainees arrived on September 8, 1942, from Hastings Park in Vancouver, a temporary holding area for Japanese Canadians. They were transported in groups of 150 via train and bus.
The site for the Tashme Internment Camp was initially chosen to accommodate 500 families, primarily consisting of men aged 18 to 45 who had been separated from their families and living in roadside camps while working on the Hope-Princeton Highway construction. However, as the camp construction required labour, these men were allowed to reunite with their families. This necessitated the rapid expansion of housing, leading to the development of the Tashme camp.
Construction progressed swiftly due to the urgency of the internment process, and by December 1942, 347 housing units had been completed.
Closure in 1946 and Government Policy on Eastern Relocation
Despite the end of World War II in August 1945, the Canadian government forced Japanese Canadians to choose between relocating east of the Rockies or “repatriating” to Japan. The residents of Tashme began to leave, and the camp was officially closed on August 12, 1946.
Today, Tashme is known as Sunshine Valley. The Tashme Museum and Memorial Center has been established there to preserve the memory of the internment era, with exhibits and monuments ensuring that this history is not forgotten.
The Canadian government implemented policies forcibly interning Japanese Canadians under the pretext of “national security.” As a result, approximately 22,000 Japanese Canadians, primarily residing in the coastal areas of British Columbia (BC), were forcibly removed from their homes, confiscated their properties, and subjected to harsh living and working conditions.
Attack on Pearl Harbor and Orders to Exclude Japanese Canadians
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese military attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, and promptly, the Canadian government declared war on Japan the same day. Under the “War Measures Act,” Order-in-Council P.C. 9591 required Japanese nationals and naturalized Japanese Canadians after 1922 to register with the Registrar of “Enemy Aliens” by February 7.
On December 8, Japanese Canadian fishermen were suspected of espionage, and approximately 1,200 fishing boats owned by Japanese Canadians in BC were confiscated. Japanese-language schools were closed, and three Japanese-language newspapers were shut down. However, the English-language newspaper “The New Canadian” was allowed to continue publishing.
On December 16, Order-in-Council P.C. 9760 required the registration of all individuals of Japanese origin, regardless of their nationality. The light at the top of the Japanese Canadian War Memorial in Stanley Park, Vancouver, was extinguished.
The Internment begins
On January 16, 1942, Order-in-Council P.C. 365 was issued under the “War Measures Act,” designating a 100-mile (approximately 160 kilometres) zone from the BC coastline as a “protected area.”
By February 7, Japanese Canadian men aged 18 to 45 were ordered to leave the protected area. Many were sent to road camps.
On February 19, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast.
On February 24, Order-in-Council P.C. 1486 empowered the Minister of Justice authority to control the relocation of all persons of Japanese origin from the protected area.
On February 25, Prime Minister Mackenzie King announced the removal of all Japanese Canadians from the restricted zone. This decision affected areas where approximately 90% of Japanese Canadians resided, with 60% of the affected population being Canadian-born.
On February 26, mass relocations of Japanese Canadians began. Some individuals were given only 24 hours’ notice to leave. Personal items, including cars, cameras, and radios, were confiscated.
On March 4, under Order-in-Council P.C. 1665, properties and belongings owned by Japanese Canadians had to be turned over to the Custodian of Enemy Alian Property as a “protective measure only.” The British Columbia Security Commission (BCSC) was established to manage the relocation of Japanese Canadians from the coast.
On March 16, the first group of approximately 22,000 Japanese Canadians arrived at Hastings Park, northeast of Vancouver. Hastings Park was a temporary pooling centre, with around 8,000 people awaiting relocation to internment sites. Conditions at the park were appalling: families were separated and forced to live in livestock barns.
On March 25, the BCSC planned the relocation of men to road construction camps and women and children to internment camps in “ghost towns.” Because Japanese Canadians were taken away from Vancouver, by March 25, only 1,593 Japanese Canadians remained at Hastings Park.
By the end of 1942, approximately 12,029 people had been sent to internment camps in BC’s interior, 945 men were sent to labour camps, and 3,991 were relocated to sugar beet farms in Alberta and Manitoba. Another 1,161 were sent to self-supporting internment sites outside the protected area.
Road Construction Labour Camps
In February 1942, the federal government, under Order-in-Council, set up the four major road construction camps (referred to as “road camps”) in British Columbia, Alberta, and Ontario. Three camps were set up in BC: Hope-Princeton, Revelstoke-Sicamous, and Blue River-Yellowhead. In Ontario, one camp was established, Jackfish-Schreiber. The three BC camps were considered to be a priority for national security.
Japanese Canadian men forcibly removed from BC’s coastal areas were sent to these three road camps in BC.
Sugar Beet Farms
Because of shortages of both sugar and labour, the federal and BC provincial governments reached the agreement to relocate Japanese Canadians to sugar beet farms in Alberta and Manitoba. Manitoba agreed to accept Japanese Canadians on the condition that they would be relocated elsewhere after the war.
Japanese Canadians were transported by train from Vancouver to designated stations, where they were picked out by farmers and taken to the farm.
For many families, relocating to Alberta or Manitoba was seen as a more appealing option than internment camps, as it allowed families to stay together. Under the BCSC relocation plan, this was the only choice that guaranteed family unity. However, working on the farms was gruelling, and living conditions were harsh. Facilities were overcrowded and lacked basic utilities such as electricity and running water.
Government-Supported Internment Camps and Self-Supporting Sites
Internment sites established outside the protected area were divided into two categories: government-supported camps and self-supporting sites.
Government-Supported Internment Camps
There were ten government-supported internment camps: Tashme, Greenwood, Slocan City, Lemon Creek, Popoff, Bay Farm, Rosebery, New Denver, Sandon, and Kaslo.
On April 21, 1942, the first group of internees was transferred from Hastings Park to Greenwood. Greenwood’s mayor openly accepted Japanese Canadians, leading to an eventual improvement in living conditions there.
On May 21, men were sent to Greenwood, Kaslo, New Denver, Slocan City, and Sandon ahead of other internees to prepare the camps for their arrival.
On September 8, the first group of internees arrived in Tashme. Transfers to the camp continued in groups of 150 people.
Self-Supporting Sites
There were four Self-Supporting sites: East Lillooet, Bridge River, Minto, and McGillivray Falls. Self-supporting sites were for Japanese Canadians who could sustain themselves financially and avoid relying on government aid. These sites allowed families some measure of autonomy but were often located in remote and harsh environments with minimal infrastructure.
Expropriation of Farmland and the Relaunch of The New Canadian Newspaper
On June 29, 1942, Order-in-Council P.C. 5523 authorized the Director of Soldier Settlement to sell or lease Japanese Canadian farms without the consent of their owners. As a result, 572 farms were turned over. Japanese Canadians lost their farms.
On November 30, The New Canadian newspaper was relaunched in Kaslo. It became an essential source of information for interned Japanese Canadians, providing updates on camp conditions and government policies, and served as a valuable resource for the community.
Seizure and Sale of Property by the Custodian of Enemy Property
On January 19, 1943, Order-in-Council P.C. 469 authorized the Canadian government, through the Custodian of Enemy Property, to sell Japanese Canadian real estate and assets without the owners’ consent. By June 23 of the same year, 769 properties and associated rental income had been transferred to the Veterans Land Administration for $850,000.
Post-War Relocation and Restoration of Rights
On April 13, 1945, the Canadian government issued a directive forcing Japanese Canadians living in British Columbia to choose between relocating east of the Rockies or “repatriating” to Japan.
On August 15, Japan’s surrender marked the end of World War II.
In January 1946, on the expiry of the measures under the War Measures Act, the government used the National Emergency Transitional Powers Act to extend discriminatory measures against Japanese Canadians.
On May 31, the “repatriation” of Japanese Canadians to Japan began.
Although the majority chose relocation east of the Rockies, this policy effectively drove many into repatriation. Approximately 3,964 individuals were deported to Japan under the guise of “voluntary repatriation.” Most of those sent to Japan were Canadian-born, had never been to Japan, and could not speak Japanese.
Japanese Canadians and their supporters launched strong opposition to this policy. As a result, the policy was eventually repealed. However, it took years for those who had been deported to return to Canada.
On March 31, 1949, the Canadian government lifted the last restrictions under the War Measures Act. Japanese Canadians gained full citizenship rights and freedom to return to the coast or move anywhere in Canada.
However, the internment and confiscation of property had inflicted significant losses on the Japanese Canadian community. Many were unable to rebuild their former livelihoods and had to establish entirely new lives from scratch.
トロントから出演のten ten。2023年8月6日、バンクーバー市オッペンハイマー公園。Photo by Japan Canada Today
The Beginnings of the Japanese Canadian Community
The history of the Japanese Canadian community began in 1877 when Manzo Nagano arrived in Canada.
Japanese immigrants, including Nagano, settled in British Columbia (BC), particularly Vancouver and Steveston (Richmond). They made their livelihoods through fishing, farming, and working in the lumber industry. As the number of immigrants from Japan increased, Powell Street, near Powell Street Grounds (now Oppenheimer Park) in Vancouver, developed into a lively Japantown known as “Powell Gai.”
In Steveston, the arrival of Gihei Kuno, a fisherman from Wakayama Prefecture, marked a significant turning point. He invited fellow fishermen from his hometown, establishing the second-largest Japanese community in BC after Vancouver.
Backlash Against Asian Immigrants and the “Gentlemen’s Agreement”
In September 1907, anti-Asian sentiment peaked in Vancouver, culminating in a riot. White Canadians initially attacked Chinatown before moving on to the nearby Japantown. Although Japanese residents were resistant, many buildings and businesses were damaged.
Discrimination against Asians, including Japanese Canadians, continued. In 1908, the Canadian government signed the “Gentlemen’s Agreement” (also known as the Lemieux Agreement) with Japan, restricting immigration to 400 adult males per year. However, there were no limitations on women and children. Further revisions in 1923 and 1928 imposed even stricter immigration limits.
Internment of Approximately 22,000 Japanese Canadians Following the Attack on Pearl Harbor
The Japanese military’s attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, marked a turning point for Japanese Canadians. On the same day, Canada declared war on Japan. Viewing Japanese Canadians as a “security threat,” the Canadian government decided to forcibly remove them from a 100-mile (160-kilometer) “restricted zone” along the BC coast.
Approximately 22,000 Japanese Canadians were relocated to internment camps in the interior of BC or farms in Alberta and Manitoba. Their properties were confiscated and sold without their consent.
Life in the internment camps was extremely harsh. Government-supported camps were established in Tashme, Greenwood, Slocan City, Lemon Creek, Popoff, Bay Farm, Rosebery, New Denver, Sandon, and Kaslo. Self-supporting camps were set up in East Lillooet, Bridge River, Minto City and McGillivray Falls. Residents were housed in cramped barracks or repurposed shacks under difficult conditions.
Men aged 18 to 45 were sent to road camps, where they were forced to perform gruelling labour constructing roads for the Hope-Princeton Highway, Revelstoke-Sicamous, and Blue River-Yellowhead.
Post-War Discrimination and Repatriation
Even after World War II ended in August 1945, the Canadian government continued to restrict Japanese Canadians from returning to the West Coast. They were forced to choose between relocating east of the Rockies or “repatriating” to Japan. As a result, approximately 4,000 Japanese Canadians, many of whom were born in Canada, were sent to post-war Japan.
Discrimination against Japanese Canadians, which had been widespread before the war, continued for some time afterward.
Centennial Celebration of Japanese Canadian Community
In 1977, the Japanese Canadian community commemorated the 100th anniversary of first Japanese immigrant, Manzo Nagano, to settle in Canada. To mark the occasion, the Japanese Canadian volunteer organization Tonari Gumi spearheaded the organization of a Japanese-style festival, “Matsuri,” the Powell Sai, at Oppenheimer Park, the site of the old Japanese neighbourhood “Powell Gai.” This festival, now known as the Powell Street Festival, continues to be held annually in August at the same park.
In 1978, the Japanese-language newspaper Vancouver Shinpo was launched to serve the Japanese community in Vancouver. Until its closure in April 2020, it played a crucial role as a community newspaper, sharing Japanese Canadian history and culture.
During this period, a significant post-war wave of Japanese immigrants settled in the Vancouver area, leading to a revival and reconstruction of the community. Amid this resurgence, there was a growing societal understanding of the wartime experiences of Japanese Canadians and a reevaluation of their history.
Redress Movement
Japanese Canadians began to assert themselves and reflect on their history from 1942 onward, bringing their experiences to society’s attention.
In the 1970s, the Japanese Canadian community gained momentum in seeking redress and an apology for the internment. The Redress Movement became more organized in the 1980s, led by the National Association of Japanese Canadians (NAJC) under Art Miki, which started negotiations with the Mulroney government in 1984.
In 1988, the Canadian government formally apologized to Japanese Canadians and settled the Redress Agreement. The government compensated internment survivors, their families, and the community. It marked a significant step toward reconciliation in Canadian history.
Cultural Centres, Monuments, and Passing History to Future Generations
Today, monuments and museums dedicated to preserving Japanese Canadian history can be found throughout Canada.
With funding from the Redress Agreement, the Nikkei Cultural Centre and Museum (formerly known as the National Nikkei Heritage Centre) was established in Burnaby, BC. This institution plays a vital role in preserving and promoting Japanese Canadian history and culture. It hosts commemorative events and exhibitions, ensuring this important history is shared with younger generations.
ところが、1週間前になって怪我のために彼女は公演をキャンセルせざるを得なくなったのです。クラシック音楽と云えども、ショービジネスです。Show must go onです。この夜の公演の主催者である国立芸術センターは、急遽代役を探した訳です。著名なヒラリーに劣らぬ高水準の演奏家で、演目は変更したくありません。公演まで1週間、リハーサル、スケジュール調整は困難を極めたに違いありません。
旧寄宿学校跡地での大量の遺骨発見を契機に、カナダ全国で先住民族コミュニティとの真の和解を求める動きが加速し、2021年、カナダ政府は、毎年9月30日を「真実と和解の日」（National Day for Truth and Reconciliation）という法定休日として制定し、先住民族迫害の歴史を忘れず、先住民族に対する理解を深める日としている。この日は、「オレンジシャツ・デー」（※）とも呼ばれ、シンボルのオレンジ色を身に着け、全国各地でイベントが開催されている。
